Abortion and Contraceptives - 1721 Words

Abortion and Contraceptives The term abortion refers to any premature expulsion of a human fetus, whether it has occurred spontaneously or not. This is often known as a miscarriage or artificially induced termination. The most common usage of the term abortion in todays society is induced. Abortion and contraception vary between two different acts, one which prevents a life from coming to be and abortion which takes a life that has already commenced. Contraceptives could also be described as birth control, some of them are abortifacients and function by causing early term abortions but in some rare cases. (popcorn.org) Women are able to use contraceptives to prevent abortion; in my opinion abortion should not be used as an option. Women might think that when they get an abortion, they are not killing a human being because it is only a fetus, but the fetus is a baby inside that did not ask to be produced and they deserve to get a life, so why make it suffer through an abortion? In todays society, contraceptives are used widely to avoid abortion because accidents do happen. Contraceptives will reduce the number of unwanted pregnancies and abortions. It will also prevent the extent of sexually transmitted diseases. Contraception is often used as the solution to accidents when women are sexual active. Some types of contraceptives in todays world to prevent abortion from happening are condoms, IUDs, birth controlShow MoreRelatedPrevalence Of Abortion And Contraceptive Practice1481 Words   |  6 PagesPREVALENCE OF ABORTION AND CONTRACEPTIVE PRACTICE AMONG WOMEN SEEKING REPEAT INDUCED ABORTION IN WESTERN NIGERIA ABSTRACT The background Induced abortion contributes significantly to maternal mortality in developing countries yet women still seek repeat induced abortion in spite of availability of contraceptive services. The aim of this study is to determine the rate of abortion and contraceptive use among women seeking repeat induced abortion in Western Nigeria. Method. A prospectiveRead MoreIs Abortion Rare And Safe1063 Words   |  5 PagesAbortion The title of the scholarly journal article I read is called Making Abortion rare and safe. Abortion is the process where you end pregnancy before the fetus is born, which therefore deceases the fetus. This article is important because this subject has become very prevalent worldwide. Abortion is developing a high increase in numerous of countries, therefore there needs to be a safer abortion awareness or to even make it infrequent in non-serious cases. The author, Duff Gillespie, startedRead MoreAccess Of Contraception And Abortion Within The Latina Community1480 Words   |  6 PagesAccess to contraceptives and abortion within the Latina community in Los Angeles, California has been influenced culturally, socially, and economically. Cultural beliefs, economic disparities, social environment, and language barriers have all prevented Latina’s access to proper pregnancy termination services, which is causing in the detrition of Latina’s sexual and reproductive care. Ultimately in order to promote better reproductive/sexual health and provide better access to contraceptives and abortionRead MorePersuasive Essay On Contraceptives1180 Words   |  5 Pagesliving on earth. A solution to this is contraceptives. We need to make them more affordable and accessible for everyone and everywhere in order to reduce population A question that is asked around when people get pregnant is, â€Å"Will you choose abortion, adoption, or parenting?† Those are just three of the options when others get pregnant. However, all of it could have been prevented by using contraceptives. In the article â€Å"High Teen Pregnancies Blamed on Contraceptives†, it states that, â€Å"Twenty eight percentRead MoreThe Importance Of Abortion In Buddhism1342 Words   |  6 Pagesof abortion† (Perrett 101). Abortion is when someone kills the fetus in the womb of the mother. Part of the Buddhist religion, following the Five Precepts, is to not kill or harm any living beings. From understanding the Five Precepts, one can understand why the Theravadin Buddhists disapprove of abortion. The topic of abortion is very controversial and the idea if it should or shouldn’t be performed varies from person to person. This is a very interesting topic due to the fact that abortion in theRead MoreThe Differences Betwe en Latin America924 Words   |  4 Pagessocial organization. One major difference across Latin America is individual nations relationships with family planning and abortion systems. Each country s stance on the morality of abortion, contraception, reproduction, and sexuality, differs from its neighbors and the region at large. In some cases the difference is visible within national borders, such as in Mexico, where abortion is only legal inside the capital city (Fondo Maria). In other cases the countries themselves are homogenous in law, butRead MoreIs Abortion Really A Problem?1444 Words   |  6 Pagespregnancies end in abortion. This means that every four in ten women who find out they are pregnant unintentionally decide to not continue with the pregnancy. This equates to four out of every ten unplanned child being killed and not having a chance at a precious life(Abortions). Although many abortions occur each day, not everyone believes that abortion is really a problem. Tru thfully, it is just like murder. Just as the country needs to limit the crime rate, the rate at which abortions take place needRead MoreAbortion : A Long And Dangerous History1532 Words   |  7 PagesAbortion has had a long and dangerous history that is seldomly talked about even today. Recently recognized as a right to women and their bodies, abortion was not an option for most women in the nineteenth century. Prior to Roe v. Wade, there was a system designed to give men control over women’s biological nature to have children. This created legislation that allowed men to dictate when the birthing process would occur, giving men power over their children and wives. Legislation aimed at women’sRead MoreThe Pregnancy Of The United States928 Words   |  4 PagesAbortions in the United States Many of us have heard of abortions, but do we truly know what an abortion really is? We know that when a woman has an abortion she basically extracts the fetus by any means but I’m sure a lot of us don’t know the different procedures to do such act. There are different methods to end a pregnancy based on the gestation time. One of the methods is to take a pill named RU486 which causes the baby to starve as the pill causes the nutrients to be blocked and soon afterRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy And Child Birth850 Words   |  4 Pagesbeneficial as allowing teens to easily access and use contraceptives. Teens are raging with hormones as their bodies are experiencing puberty which at times could result in sexual acts. The aftermath of these sexual acts is pregnancy and birth. Allowing teens to have free access to contraceptives gives one a sense of being safe rather then being sorry. School boards and school nurses should be able to provide teenagers with free contraceptives to lower the teen pregnancy and birth rate as well as

Parenting a Balancing Act Free Essays

string(48) " and encourage them to do more if they want to\." Parenting: A Balancing Act â€Å"You’re not doing well enough! † Just how many times have children heard this from their parents? After all, parents do expect their children to do well in life, but sometimes those expectations could place too much of a burden on their children. Most parents worry about the â€Å"Big C†, college, which is shown through many of their expectations on their child’s academics, extra-curriculum’s, and sometimes future careers. A study in 2007 by the Childs Trend Databank shows that 69. We will write a custom essay sample on Parenting: a Balancing Act or any similar topic only for you Order Now 7% parents expected their children from 6th to 12th grade to receive a Bachelor’s degree or higher. Easier said than done right? Of course, the parent might fill their child’s schedule with dozens of E. C’s and A. P classes to make them stand out in the college applications, but that does not mean they will automatically get into any university or college. Like in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster†, the composer, Callie Schweitzer, writes: â€Å"Does being class president, captain of the track team, and sole organizer of the school’s clothing drive add up to a top college acceptance? No. All it guarantees is stress. † Parenting requires balance between high and low expectations, a task not to be taken lightly. Thus, parents need to learn how to limit their own expectations of their children due to the stress it causes on them. In some cases, the parents put their children in many after-school programs and encourage them to do more if they want to. You read "Parenting: a Balancing Act" in category "Essay examples" Of course, not all children look forward to doing so much and simply want to hang around with their friends or go out shopping. However, this sometimes leads to conflict between parent and child. â€Å"I only want to relax in my room and talk on Facebook and have fun, but my mom yells at me to go do more practice work for the SAT’s. says Anonymous 1, a student. The SAT’s, or the super important test for college, is one of the few tests that is required by colleges in order to apply to them. Out of a maximum 2400 points, parents expect their children to score high in order for them to get into a good college, but to get a high score in the SATs is not exactly the eas iest task to do. Some parents expect 2400, some expect 2000 and up, but it still adds more stress to their child when their already grueling schedule is weighted down even more with SAT preparatory classes. Back in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster†, Callie Schweitzer states, â€Å"It’s natural to want your child to succeed, but what, exactly, qualifies as achievement? Too many of today’s parents define it as a 2400 on the SATs*, a schedule full of AP classes, and extracurricular activities that take up every afternoon of the school week. Parents often dismiss the reality of the hours of homework this kind of academic load entails†. And it is quite true; some parents do often dismiss the amount of workload coming from all these academic loads. In a clear sense, parents need to get rid of college rankings or reputations because any college can give their children a good education despite the rank, if their children actually work hard and try. Just because a college or university is ranked high does not mean that going to any college that is not ranked high nor has a great reputation like the â€Å"Ivy Leagues† will not give a good education. After all, even if you have a degree from a â€Å"prestigious† college, there is no guarantee that employers will fight for you or you getting instant jobs the moment you step out. Like in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster,† Callie Schweitzer, quotes, Alexandra Robbins, best-selling author of The Overachievers: The Secret Lives of Driven Kids. Robbins writes,†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Forget the name-brands, forget the reputations in your area and social circles, and for goodness sake, throw the college rankings in the trash. ’† Getting a job takes your own effort and time, not solely on getting a degree from a â€Å"super-ranked college†. â€Å"My parents expect me to get into the UC’s only and not any State schools or City Colleges,† replies Anonymous 5, yet another student worried about their future paths. To be honest, it really is up to the student to choose which college he or she wants to go to and not the parent deciding which college for them. True, any parents can expect their child to do well in school and life, but even that can lead to too much of a burden upon their child. It must be taken into account that not all students enjoy studying for school or even actually going to school. After all, everyone is different, but that is not really taken into account when it comes to schooling or work. As in many cases, there are good and bad sides to expectations from parents. In some cases, it can be harmful or stressful for the student and sometimes helpful. â€Å"My mom expects a lot out of me and I do find it wearing at times, but I do believe that it helps me work harder in school,† informs Anonymous 2, another student. Sometimes, children with high expectations from parents feel the urge to do well in sports or school to meet their parent’s expectations. Of course, to set yourself high and fail lets you learn from your mistakes and reevaluate your pathway from that. High expectations also means that kids may not be as lazy or lax about doing well in life because setting a goal in life, whether it be made by the parent or child, does help lead the way in the future. Some students have greater confidence for themselves because they know that they can achieve high expectations from their parents as well as goals. In the article, â€Å"Debate: Parental Expectations†, the writer, Lu Shizhen, writes, â€Å"Parental expectations can motivate children to build a strong mind and encourage them to achieve their best academic performance. Therefore, there is nothing wrong with parents who pin expectations on the development of their children. However, such parental expectations should be realistic. † Unfortunately, planning to aim high is a good idea, but making realistic goals to achieve is not the easiest thing to do. Also, in some cases, parents might not recognize the successes of their children managing to achieve the expectations that the parents have set, which winds up leaving the child not enjoying to succeed or have major goals. â€Å"I do what my mom expects me to do all the time, but most of the time, my mom gives me even harder things to accomplish,† says Anonymous 3. Not all kids feel like doing every last thing parents throw at them and parents need to learn how to respect that. After all, some parents do not see how their expectations stress their children out more than it actually helps them. Eventually the stress can be too much and might crack in your child dropping of many kinds. Parents should not expect their child to live up to every expectation, because everyone has different wants, likes, personalities, hates, etc. Just like in the article, â€Å"Why Can’t Johnny Jump Tall Buildings? , the composer Alan Kazdin tells us, â€Å"Just remember, as you go about it, that it’s only human for parents to tend to expect that our children can do more than they can really do. Even slight adjustments of your expectations to compensate for that tendency—a little more emphasis on shaping, a little more patience, a little reflection on what’s really important to you as a parent and what behaviors can be left to disappear or develop on their own—can produce surprisingly excellent results. † Parents expect a lot out of their children because they truly want the best from them, but often times it can go too far. Many parents do not want their children to follow their path, especially if their path was filled with difficulty and problems that they do not want their children to face, so they want to see them do better and have a life without any of the hardship their parents have faced. However, some parents force their children to do extra work in order for them not to face the problems they had and not everyone likes doing extra work. â€Å"Well, it’s true that I want my kids to achieve far in life, but I also know that I probably sometimes do a bit too much†, says Anonymous 5, a mother of 3. After all, parent’s expectations come from their care, but even that could be too much for their child. Of course, parents would not mind their kids to get into â€Å"name brand, great reputation colleges†, but that would be up to the child. † I do believe that my parents want me to achieve well in life and all, but they sometimes annoy me to no end. † says Anonymous 6, a student, â€Å"I really hate it when I’m doing something I, myself, want to do, but then my parents yell at me to do something they want me to do. Their Intentions are good, but they need to know about my own feelings when it comes to their expectations. Teenagers have a lot to say about a wide range of topics, but when it comes to their parents it can be endless. After all, the looming threat of college in the typical teenager’s life causes anxiety for both the teen and parent. Unfortunately, that anxiety could lead to a split in the parent and child relationship. â€Å"Som etimes their expectations are too much for me to do. I do one good thing, but they view more of the bad things I do,† says Anonymous 4, another student, â€Å"It’s hard to achieve what they want. I understand them, but I wish they understood me more as well. Their expectations affect my life both in a good way and bad way since it makes me work harder, but leads to me getting a lot of stress and frustrations. † After all, do parents truly understand their children’s feelings? Perhaps not. Due to the anxiety to see their children get into college and doing well in their life, some parents do not take the teenager’s feelings into consideration. â€Å"They do expect me to do well in school, and to achieve my goals, but not to do anything I want,† says Anonymous 5, â€Å"Sure, they want me to do what I really want to pursue and become in life, but at times they can be confusing to me. Of course, not all parents expect so much out of their children, but not to the point where expectations are completely lacking. â€Å"My mom, she doesn’t expect me to be perfect, with great grades, 4. 0’s, or anything, so we get along fine. I do not find that affects my life that much, although my siblings influence m y good grades in school, because I do not want to follow what they did in their lives. Expectations have its ups and downs, but everyone views it differently. â€Å"My mom expects me to get 4. 0’s and to get as many E. A’s as possible, which I do not find likable. Many times, we argue over the stress of my achieving well and the threat of college, but it usually never ends well. I believe that my life is more stressed and frustrated than before and I am getting tired of it,† says Anonymous 6. In the end, parents definitely need to at least try to see if their children are becoming stressed out trying to pass their expectations. However, are expectations from parents really needed? Truthfully, expectations can help improve the mind set of students and their own expectations of doing well for themselves. A lack of expectations might lead to a drop in schoolwork and an allowance of bad grades. Students with uncaring parents might wind up with themselves having low expectations on grades what they expect in life from their parents. Some students believe that their parent’s expectations really are not needed in their already stressed lives. â€Å"Well, I could just put my parent’s voices onto a tape recorder and that would be good enough. I hate how they want me to do all this stuff when I just want to do things I really want to do. I find the expectations unneeded in my life because they just add more stress in my life and annoy me to no end,† states Anonymous 1. This came from a friend who particularly has a bad relationship with his parents. Some students think that their parent’s expectations help them, but dislike them at the same time. â€Å"I think that my parent’s expectations help me believe that I can do well and it makes me work harder, but sometimes it becomes too much. Because if I do well, my parents expect me to even better and even if I do well in one spot, they look at a bad spot, which is frustrating,† tells Anonymous 4. â€Å"I do think that my parent’s expectations help me make goals in my life, but I hate it. At first, I do think they suck, but I do realize that expectations from my parents are not that bad, it is just that they sometimes expect too much out of me and ticks me off. † says Anonymous 6. From this, parent’s expectations do have an impact on their children’s lives both negatively and positively. In the end, some students wish to deal with their parent’s expectations, but do not know how to do so. In Elizabeth Ryan’s, Straight Talk About Parents, she recommends talking to your parents on the â€Å"rules† or â€Å"chores† you have to do and why they bother you. After all, talking aloud with your parents about your problems with their expectations is definitely a start to compromising. She says that if you want to handle these problems, then start by asking yourself: What are the rules in my family? What are the rules do I think are clear to everyone? Which rules do I think are not clear to everyone? What can I do to get the unclear rules to be clearer? Which rules do I think are fair? Which rules do I think are unfair or unnecessary? Which rule am I the most upset about? Think about your parent’s feelings and not just your own, they might only just want the best out of you. Try to make your parents listen to your reasons on why they are â€Å"bad† with their expectations. Instead of always disagreeing and arguing, try to find things to agree on instead of nagging each other. Take note of your own feelings as well as your parents because they might just be taking note of your well-being or future. In case you may not feel like talking to your parents, why not talk to a good friend? Friends should always be there for each other, especially in times of hardship. Talk to your friend about your problems and what they think you should do. If not, just let it out. Yes, crying is human nature and a way of releasing emotion instead of bottling it up. If you’re mad you can just punch the stuffing out of your pillow, you just might find that you feel better after beating your anger out. Hopefully, parents might one day learn how to balance their expectations to not be too much or too little. It might take a while because, after all, parenting is quite the balancing act. Anonymous 1. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 2. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 3. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 4. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 5. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 6. Personal interview. 26 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 7. Personal interview. 26 Jan. 2012. Kazdin, Alan. â€Å"Why Can’t Johnny Jump Tall Buildings? † Slate. The Slate Group,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2012. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. http://www. slate. com/articles/life/family/2008/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  11/why_cant_johnny_jump_tall_buildings. single. html. â€Å"Percentage of Children in Grades 6-12 Whose Parents Expect Them To Receive a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher, 2003 and 2007. † Chart. N. p. : Child Trends DataBank, 2007. Childs Trends DataBank. Web. 1 Feb. 2012. http://www. hildtrendsdatabank. org/? q=node/366. Ryan, Elizabeth A. Straight Talk About Parents. New York: New York Facts On File, 1989. Print. Schweitzer, Callie. â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster. â€Å"Parenting Teens Online. iFOS Publishing and Parenting Teens Network. , Jan. 2008. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. http://www. parentingteensonline. com/article/s how/title/ Taming_the_Overachieving_Monster. Shizhen, Lu. â€Å"Debate: Parental Expectations. † China Daily. China Daily,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1995-2012. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. http://www. chinadaily. com. cn/opinion/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2011-05/30/content_12601014_2. htm. How to cite Parenting: a Balancing Act, Essay examples

Essay on A Healthy Lifestyle is the Key to Academic Success Essay Example For Students

Essay on A Healthy Lifestyle is the Key to Academic Success Essay Statement of the Problem What is the relationship between grade point average and a healthy lifestyle among college students? Do college students who participate in a healthy lifestyle tend to earn higher grade point averages than students who do not? How does a student’s grade point average benefit from the student practicing a healthy lifestyle? How is this relationship mediated by the hours spent studying, gender, race, and socioeconomic status of college students? Rationale Health and wellness is important to how an individual acquires and retains knowledge. Healthy diets are what ensure proper brain development. Fernando Gomez-Pinilla, suggested that â€Å"mechanisms that are involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain functions† (pg. 572). Our brains require nutrients as well as exercise in order for our brains to function at their best. People often neglect the importance that a healthy lifestyle has on their success academically. Most research studies suggest that effort put forth by parents involvement is what predicts a students academic success, despite the effort expended by either teachers or the students themselves (Paul, 2012). Although parents involvement is crucial to students’ academic achievement, a healthy lifestyle is the foundational aspect of academic success. Ultimately, this research, which investigates the impacts of healthy lifestyle on students success, may encourage college students to participate in a healthy lifestyle in order to ensure proper brain development and higher grade point averages. LITERATURE REVIEW There is a substantial amount of literature supporting my topic, which seeks to establish a relationship between. . 81 Parks, F., Kennedy, J. (2007). The Impact of Race, Physical Attractiveness, and Gender on Education Majors and Teachers Perceptions of Student Competence. Journal of Black Studies, 37(6), 936-943 Paul, A. (2012, October 24). Brilliant: The Science of Smart. Ideas Why Parenting Is More Important Than Schools Retrieved from http://ideas.time.com/2012/10/24/the-single-largest-advantage-parents-can-give-their-kids / Rau, W., Durand, A. (2000). The Academic Ethic and College Grades: Does Hard Work Help Students to Make the Grade?. Sociology of Education, 73(1), 19-38 Wainwright, N., Surtees, P., Welch, A., Luben, R., Khaw, K. , Bingham, S. (2007). Evidence-Based Public Health Policy and Practice: Healthy lifestyle choices: could sense of coherence aid health promotion?. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(10), 871-876

Nokia Essays - Brand Management, Marketing, Nokia, CAC 40

Nokia Nokia SWOT STRENGTHS Nokia has long established identity (1898); lots of available resources (financial, etc.) Schmohl is experienced in international marketing (Adidas and Uniroyal) Nokia has high penetration rate in Europe, especially in Northern countries (close to 100%) Nokia Consumer Electronics has access to innovative technology through group companies WEAKNESSES Lack of centralized marketing strategy and champion; completely different positioning strategy depending on the country Too many brand names (100) in one market; problem trying to find balance Corporate culture is highly technical and operational: So what if the customer does not understand!; lack of customer service priority OPPORTUNITIES Potential for brand name sales in Europe = differentiation Growing replacement and supplement television market NCE has opportunity of using its technology to enhance user-friendliness THREATS The market for color TVs and VCRs is a mature/saturated market; consumers are buying less often and only to replace older units (same trend for all countries across Europe) Can't differentiate based on technical advancement or price; competitors too fast to match Impact of recent purchases (for example, Sony) and mergers is unknown; competitors are getting larger and integrating supply chains Competitors (Samsung, Goldstar, Daewoo) quickly and successfully building brand name and image Branding Strategy In the colour TV market, neither technology nor price provides a competitive advantage. The decision a consumer makes to purchase is primarily motivated by emotion, and is driven largely by comfort level with a particular brand. A successful branding strategy for NCE is, therefore, critical to gaining a competitive advantage. Specifically, NCE should brand for the following reasons: Competitive advantage is gained through brand name (not technology or price) According to brand awareness studies, Nokia is recognized most of the time (in Germany, France, Italy, UK and Norway), but not necessarily affiliated with consumer electronics such as TVs and VCRs Consumers buy televisions based on emotion Consumers perceive value in features that are marketed as user-friendly In the past Nokia has relied heavily on its ability to innovate?it is a strong technology company. However, it is not good at introducing or packaging this technology for consumers. Schmohl must introduce a new mindset to NCE; a strategic shift that encourages customer service and international marketing. Internal Management Challenge Schmohl faces at least two challenges within NCE that he must address immediately: 1. Lack of a marketing champion in corporate headquarters 2. A continued reliance on technology as the main marketing approach. For example, the remote control TV mouse is centered on technology and may frighten away potential customers who may perceive it as too technical. Options for solving these include: (1) push down his ideas and force all to comply using his positional power; (2) soft approach?gradually getting buy-in to his plans from technical representative, sales and marketing. Option 1 is not viable since even though it may result in short-term agreement, it will result in resignations, poor morale and distrust in senior management over the long run. Since the change process can be slow, Schmohl should adopt option 2 that means getting buy-in at the senior management level. If there is disagreement at the highest level of the company on international marketing strategy, then the same can be expected throughout the ranks of the company. For example, the vice-president of engineering may agree on the surface, but tell his employees to continue to do what they have always done (don't play the new marketing tapes at the fairs, etc.). Getting Buy-in from the Dealer Network The dealer network is critical to their branding strategy. If a dealer is not satisfied or confident with a manufacturers market position, they may lead a potential buyer to a competitive brand. NCE must maintain its strong brand-marketing program. And it needs to dealers to support them or they will fail. To do this, Schmohl should be willing to increase margins to dealers or incentive programs to encourage them to sell the Nokia brand vision and concept. Ultimately a successful marketing campaign will draw customers into the dealer's door. If Nokia is foremost in their mind, we want the dealer to sell them Nokia, not attempt to switch to a competitive brand. Customer Brand Awareness and Association The Nokia brand name

10 Facts for a Research Project on Cell Biology

10 Facts for a Research Project on Cell Biology Sometimes, understanding the history tied to certain subject matters you intend to write an essay about, gets you done with half of your task and cell biology belongs exactly to this category. Therefore we shall explore cell biology and its history, which you can employ when writing your research paper. Like most disciplines, the field of cell biology was defined by Greek scholars in ancient Greece. It was established from the Greek word KUTOC, as a branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell with special emphasis on the cell being the basic unit of life. This article alongside two others will be focused on providing you with all the information you need to start writing an excellent research paper on cell biology. 10 Interesting Facts on Cell Biology for Your Research Paper: All cells are not equal. The fact that cells are the basic units of life does not automatically mean all cells are equal. Although scientific research shows that all cells share certain similarities such as the ability to eat, grow and move, they are also unique in diverse ways. Cells differ in size, function and living arrangement- some are self-sustaining while others are part of a complex multicellular organism. Cell membranes form the boundary between its internals and the external environment. Just like the human skin acts as the boundary between the human body and its external environment, cell membranes do the exact same thing. Cell membranes are based on a framework of fat-based molecules known as phospholipids. Their main function is gate-keeping. This involves preventing hydrophilic substances- elements that love water- from leaving or entering the cell. Cell genetic codes are expressed through nucleic acids. The two major types of nucleic acids charged with this responsibility are the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These nucleic acids work hand by hand to build and manage the cell functions. The DNA is the molecule that contains the information a cell needs to function while the RNA serves as the conduit which transports this message to areas where they are expressed. It is also important to note that other proteins/amino acids are also charged with the responsibility of cell expressions. Cells contain structures designed to carry out specific tasks. These structures are called organelles, and they are responsible for the separate functions a cell needs to perform to stay alive. While eukaryotic cells contain a diverse range of organelles, prokaryotic have just a few. The organelles in prokaryotic cells include: nucleus for growth and reproduction, mitochondria for energy, golgi complex as a manufacturing and storing organelle and endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes carbohydrates, and fat. Eukaryotic cells basically make use of ribosomes to synthesize proteins and lysosomes to digest macromolecules. Cells are differentiated and categorized by their genetic materials. As stated earlier, there are different types of cells. Scientists make use of a categorization system that focuses on the packaging of their genetic materials. Cells that have their DNA separated or partitioned from their cytoplasm are categorized as eukaryotes while others with DNAs not partitioned off their cytoplasm are known as prokaryotic. Also, all known prokaryotes e.g. bacteria are generally single cells while eukaryotes such as Amoeba are usually single-entities living freely in their own environment. Cells generate energy from sunlight and food molecules. Like all living organisms, cells need energy to survive and they get that energy from the environment they live in. Biological research has shown that the major source from which cells get energy is the sun. Almost all living cells- bacteria, algae, plant cells etc.- harness solar energy to meet their everyday needs, grow and reproduce. Cells also take in food molecules such as sugar and fats through the membrane to generate the energy needed to function. Cells use specific pathways to turn nutrients into usable energy. The specific pathway used by cells to develop usable energy largely depends on the type of the cell. Studies have shown that eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells apply different pathways. Eukaryotic cells make use of some major processes which include: glycolysis- the splitting of sugar- and oxidative phosphorylation, which involves an electron transport chain. Prokaryotic cells, on the other hand, make use of oxidation which involves the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another through chemical reactions. Cells also store energy in reserves. When there is an abundant supply of energy, eukaryotic cells tend to store energy for future use. To get this done, these cells automatically create energy-rich molecules to store the excessive energy. These reservoirs are of course held in the cell and can be called upon when needed. In situations of plenty, these reservoirs can get large enough to be viewed separately under a microscope. Cells have varying life spans. Another factor which differentiates cells from one another is their life spans. These life spans can fluctuate between a few days to a couple of years. Using cells in the human body as case study: cells in the digestive tract may live for just a few days, those situated in the immune system may live for months, while cells in pancreas can live for a year or even more. Simple cells such as amoeba and algae that live in their own habitat without a host also exhibit fluctuating life spans. Cells also commit suicide. Cells go through the process known as apoptosis when they are either damaged or infected. This process involves a sequence of steps which starts with the cell sending self-termination signals to its nucleus. The process of apoptosis is done to protect the body as well as keep the natural process of cell division occurring without difficulties. Lastly, cells that do not go through the natural process of apoptosis when damaged can be cancerous. Here we come to the end of today’s interesting facts about the field of cell biology. To learn more about writing a research project on it, why not read the other articles in this series covering 20 cell biology research project topics and how to write a good research project on cell biology. References: Jungck, J. (2013). Genesis of What Is Life?: A Paradigm Shift in Genetics History. Cell Biology Education, 12(2), pp.151-152. Cameron, L. (2013). International Institute for Collaborative Cell Biology and BiochemistryHistory and Memoirs from an International Network for Biological Sciences. Cell Biology Education, 12(3), pp.339-344. Chamany, K., Allen, D. and Tanner, K. (2008). Making Biology Learning Relevant to Students: Integrating People, History, and Context into College Biology Teaching. Edelmann, L. (2002). Life at the Cell and Below-Cell Level: The Hidden History of a Fundamental Revolution in Biology (review). Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 45(4), pp.628-631. Bechtel, W. and Abrahamsen, A. (2006). In Search of Mitochondrial Mechanisms: Interfield Excursions between Cell Biology and Biochemistry. Journal of the History of Biology. Steinberg, G. (2015). Cell biology of Zymoseptoria tritici: Pathogen Cell Organization and Wheat Infection. Fungal Genetics and Biology, 79, pp.17-23. Kerimoglu, O., Straile, D. and Peeters, F. (2012). Role of Phytoplankton Cell size on the Competition for Nutrients and Light in incompletely Mixed Systems. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 300, pp.330-343.

Land Biomes - Tropical Rainforests

Land Biomes - Tropical Rainforests Biomes Biomes are the worlds major habitats. These habitats are identified by the vegetation and animals that populate them. The location of each land biome is determined by the regional climate. Tropical Rain Forests Tropical rainforests are characterized by dense vegetation, seasonally warm temperatures, and abundant rainfall. The animals that dwell here depend on trees for housing and food. Climate Tropical rain forests are very hot and wet. They can average between 6 and 30 feet of precipitation per year. The average temperature is fairly constant ranging from about 77 to 88 degrees Fahrenheit. Location Tropical rain forests are typically located in areas of the world that are near the equator. Locations include: Africa - Zaire basin and MadagascarCentral America - Amazon River BasinHawaiiWest IndiaSoutheast AsiaAustralia Vegetation A great variety of plants can be found in tropical rain forests. Enormous trees as tall as 150 feet tall form an umbrella canopy over the forest that blocks out the sunlight for plants in the lower canopy and forest floor. Some examples of rainforest plants include: kapok trees, palm trees, strangler fig trees, banana trees, orange trees, ferns, and orchids. Wildlife Tropical rain forests are home to the majority of plant and animal species in the world. Wildlife in the tropical rain forest is very diverse. Animals include a variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects. Examples are: monkeys, gorillas, jaguars, anteaters, lemurs, snakes, bats, frogs, butterflies, and ants. Rain forest creatures have characteristics such as bright colors, distinctive markings, and grasping appendages. These traits help the animals adapt to life in the rain forest.

Final Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Final - Case Study Example The employees in many of such organizations feel that co-operating the concept of self managed work team is analogous with the assistance of their own execution. â€Å"The concept of self-managed work teams is also opposed by the supervisors of many organizations who do not intend to become the facilitators†. The self managed work team violates the principal of unit of command. Studies and organizational behavior theories have proved that there is contradiction in the effectiveness of the self-managed work teams. Such a situation could also be highlighted from the case when Knowlton was not able to align himself with the objectives of the whole team after Feaster arrived and began showing his superiority in the subject matter and research worked by the team. It should also be noted that in the meeting with the sponsors of the research, except the departmental heads, bosses and supervisors only Feaster was the only employee that was invited for the meeting and was asked to give presentation about the proceedings of the research. Even though he had been an active participant in the research since his joining, other employees were also the part of the project and had been working on the same for much longer period them him. It is also observed that employees working as a part of self-manage d work teams have high attrition rate and absenteeism then the people working in a conventional work groups. Fester’s role in the organization was determined by largely his personality. From the day he was appointed to the team and project, he was dedicated and excited to complete the research. He started getting in close connection with the Link, the mathematician of the group spending time discussing the method of analysis of the patterns that link had been worrying about over the past few months. He tried to understand the concept on which they were

Digital multimeter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Digital multimeter - Essay Example The user guide could be used by a number of individuals in order to achieve high performance and full control of various electrical installations. The research was undertaken in a school setting by involving students in active participation with the aid of user guides. The students were then assessed and the outcome recorded. The outcome was later used to upgrade the user guide. Multimeter which is also known as multitester is an electronic gadget that integrates several measurement function of a unit. A multimeter has several features that have the ability to record current, voltage and resistance using the relevant electronic instruments. In the current world multimeter has been upgraded and may use digital and analogue technologies. In that case, they can be referred to as Analog Multimeter (AMM) and Digital Multimeter (DMM). Analogue technology measure signal in non-continuous form while digital measure signal in discreet form. Thus Analog instruments such as micro ammeter usually have a pointer which moves over a scale attuned for all the dissimilar measurements that can recorded while Digital instruments on the other hand display digits which are sometimes shown on a bar of a length relatively proportional to the magnitude being measured. (Mazur, 2008). In real life situation, Multimeters can be used to correct faults that occur in electric circuit. This is because they posses high degree of accuracy. For example galvanometer is used to detect the presence of electric current and the direction of flow of electricity. This has helped over the years in various households and offices to prevent fire outbreak due to early detection of these faults. Background Men had a quest of acquiring a tool that he could use conveniently to measure and detect electric current thereby having full command of his environment regarding electricity. A lot of inventions were made by many inventors in order to quench this thirst ; with the first ever moving pointer to be invented which had these abilities was the galvanometer. This was used across the board to measure resistance and voltage since it was the only device. It functioned with the aid of Wheatstone bridge. The device was known to be too slow when used in labs and in the fields. It was also bulky and delicate. Man then adopted the premise that there were more than were known to them, therefore he kept the fire blazing by conducting more research to acquire more practical and convenient devices. A meter which used fine metal spring was then discovered. Besides it detecting current it also had the capability of recording measurements by use of its magnetic properties. It was quick and easy to use. Multimeters were then invented in the early 1920s. They consisted of separate devices necessary for to maintaining telecommunication. As time went by, people became tired with carrying these separate instruments and this was a clear indication that a more convenient device was needed. Macadie invented a device which could record amperes, volts and ohms. It was later called Avometer since it was a multipurpose. His idea was later borrowed

Character study from Of Mice And Men Essay Example for Free

Character study from Of Mice And Men Essay After reading the novel I have understood that many characters had dream. The book Of Mice and Men was set in the depression of the 1930s in California where Men travelled around looking for any work they could find, they had to leave families and homes just to make money. The novel shows that people who lived on ranches were lonely. These were depressing and desperate times, no hope and no future. George and Lennie: George and Lennie being migrant ranch workers like several other Americans in those had a dream. Were gonna have a little house and a couple of acres an a cow and some pigs Their dream is to own a farm or a ranch of their own so they could be their own boss and wouldnt have to be pushed round by other ranch owners who they work for now. They wanted to independent due to the working and having a job always cost them lost of; money, friends and other relationships. Their life was always living in a stable with different people. They were very lonely Guys like us who work on ranched are the loneliest guys in the world. The character George is a small, quick man with well-defined features and with big heart. Georges relationship with Lennie is likely to be like a stepfather as George was very caring for Lennie, however in some stages he told him off. His only set-back is his mentally handicapped friend Lennie whom he travels with and has been since he promised Lennies aunt Clara he would look after him after she died. Looking after Lennie stops George from working towards his dream and even prevent him from having a normal life of a rancher, because of this George and Lennie regularly fight. Lennie always forgets all goods things that George tells him such when they went they see the new boss Lennie, you keep your mouth shut in front of the boss as enter the office he jumbled the things up, however he always remembers bad things that George told had told him. Lennie is a maniac about petting nice and soft thing such as velvet, soft small animals (i.e. rabbits and mice). These things usually some how put him in trouble such as the big disaster that happens. Lennie is mentally like a child; he didnt have any sexual emotion. How the society can accuse him that he could do soothing like that? It shows the illiterateness of people however there are people who can read and publish magazines. Lennie always is a problem and George tells him. At stages of the story George gets angry with Lennie and tells him about his life without Lennie: Whatever we aint got, thats what you want. God amighty, if I was alone I could live so easy. I could go get a job an work, a no trouble. No mess at all, and when the end of the month come I could take my fifty bucks and go into town an get whatever I want. George and Lennie lives so hard life, so bleak that they used their dream as a way of comforting themselves. Daydreaming and talking about it was the only thing that gave them hope. George was kidding himself he knew that their will not becoming true. He just used Lennie as companion to have someone to talk to. The dream that Lennie and George have is not a reality till the characters are introduced to Candy. He is an old, one-handed man; he befriends George and Lennie when they first get on the ranch. Candy becomes a very lonely man after Carlson kills his only companion, his dog and hopes for the same fate. When they can me here I wisht somebodyd shoot me When he hears Lennie and George talking about the dream he becomes excited and offers money towards it so they can buy a farm, he also offers to work on the farm. John Steinbeck gives an insight of the dog and gives hint that this what is going to happen to Lennie. John Steinbeck also gives the descriptions of Lennie being very strong. Lennie killed Curleys wife. Curley and other went to get him. George told Lennie in the beginning when he gets in trouble he should go in the bushes. George knew that Curley would give Lennie hell may be put him in the cage and will assaults in different ways. George had no option then killing Lennie. George met Lennie in bushes and start to tell him about their and suddenly pulled the behind his back and killed him. Lennie was responsible for ending their dreams and died while listening about their dream. Curleys wife: Curleys wife is another major character in the novel. She is naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve as she believes in everyone even Lennie. She is pretty as says because I am natural she also had a dream; her dream was to be a Hollywood actress. She was being told that she work in the films by a director while filming a picture. She didnt understand men. The director told her that she can be an actress that was the easiest way for him to get her in the. She didnt realise that working in the Hollywood is not a joke; actually people need knowledge and beauty to work down there. Curleys wifes dream wasnt going to come true due to she was married to Curley soon she would have a dozen of kids. She didnt like Curley Curley ant a nice fella as Curley was a controlled freak. She was the only woman in the ranch. She had the right to speak to other people, however when she find someone to talk they ignored her due to she was a troubled mans wife. So Curleys wife flirted with men to attract them she was heavily made up such as roughed lips, wide space eyes, red finger nails and hair this was may be due to she was newly married. When she found men and Curley wasnt there she start to flirted she was standing in the door way, she putted her had behind her back to lean against the door frame so the body was thrown out putting her hands behind her back means to show her body, to show her breast bigger, so as her hips. All these descriptions make attraction. The way she talked to men I guess I better look someplace else and she said playfully she may be wanted attraction for her sexual life due to Curley might not have full filled her sexual wants as Curley always kept one of his soft. gloves full Vaseline. Curleys wife knew that Lennie crushed Curleys hand, so how can she allow him to touch her as he was a stranger. She is also the person responsible for ending Georges, Lonnies and Candys dream. Her death by Lennie was actually a favour for her due to she was the only person who died without seeing her dream not coming true. Crooks: Crooks was the other major character in the novel. When George arrived found about Crooks found a winkle in his bunck said give the stable back hell. Crooks was then described by Candy that he is a nigger this shows the amount of racism that occurred those days as a black man was called by a racist word. Everyone gave him hell he was nearly being killed in the Christmas when he bring a gallon of whisky and when the people got drunk he was being beaten up. He is also being described as a nice fella however he was not being accepted in the society. When Lennie went to see Crooks he told him you got no right to come in my room. Crooks was angry so much at first due to he hurt in the past by white people that he doesnt give a chance to hurt him again as through his life he has been a boxing bag that everyone punched and went. When he finds Lennie weaker then himself he tries to wind him up as he tells Lennie spouse George gone a left you alone, what will you do Lennie was scared and nearly knock Crooks out. Crooks was an American citizen, he wasnt a slave like other black people in America those days. I ant a southern Negro I was born right here in California he had that life style as a normal American white citizens. When he was a kid he used to play with white kids and go to their place and sometimes they came to his fathers ranch. John Steinbecks wrote this book due to he wanted to show to the people what had happen during depression. Steinbecks dream is an aspect of all the characters dreams of an equal society; Crooks, equal rights for different races, Candys, rights for work and ageism, Curleys wife, womens rights and Lennies, right of a mad person. Steinbeck would like to see all these aspects in his idea of society. He saw the problems of his society and maybe tried to change them with this book. Steinbecks again mention in the from George point of view where he describes to Lennie at the end The place no-ones gonna hurt you. This tells us about heaven where everyone is going to be treated the same way and everyone would have the right to live a free life.

The Caribbean Essay -- Caribbean History Essays

The Caribbean Perhaps nowhere on earth is a more culturally varying region than in the Caribbean. The recent history has formed these islands into a confused, random area, hiding much of its people’s identity and heritage. Due to European Imperialism, extermination of aboriginal peoples, slavery, the plantation system, and the ethnic diversity of the inhabitants the Caribbean does not allow itself to be classified as one. In fact little can be grouped together. Sydney Mintz, Antonio Benitez-Rojo, and Michelle Cliff try to make sense of the combination and loss of culture as well as the reemergence of new ones. They do this from different perspectives, Rojo though the eyes of a Cuban and a literary critic, Mintz as a political scientist and Cliff as a Jamaican born and raised citizen. Sydney Mintz and Antonio Benitez-Rojo argue a very similar viewpoint. When the Europeans arrived in the late fourteen hundreds they took control of the native population an either enslaved or exterminated them. Over the years the European countries have juggled ownership of the islands, shifting in...

Freudian Reading on “Othello” Essay

Freudian Reading on â€Å"Othello† Is it possible for other people to act as our superegos? What are the effects of never resolving your oedipal complex? And when a situation becomes to over whelming, do we project our thought and feelings on to our peers? I am using â€Å"Through the Literary Looking Glass: Critical Theory in Practice† by Sian Evans and â€Å"Othello† by William Shakespeare to analyse the characters Othello and Iago as well as the major theme jealousy through a Freudian lens. The aim of this psychoanalysis is to try and give a better understanding of the character’s motivations and unconscious, narcissistic desires. The theme jealousy is revealed by both these characters throughout the play shows us how we need to be well rounded people, and the effects this has if we are not. The opening act of â€Å"Othello† begins with the marriage of Desdemona and Othello in Venice, Italy. Here we see a black, middle aged man, marry a fair, young, Venetian woman in front of an upper cl ass white society. (This was highly frowned upon at that point in history). As the play proceeds Iago suggests to Othello that Desdemona is sleeping with Cassio, and tries to corrupt their marriage. This behaviour seems somewhat childish coming from a grown man and shows us how Iago doesn’t use his superego to control his id, as well as displaying his immense jealousy of Othello. However Othello believes what Iago is saying, as he has a reputation of being an â€Å"honest man†. Iago continues to insinuate Desdemona’s dishonesty to Othello and provides fake evidence. Othello gets increasingly â€Å"green-eyed† by the â€Å"poison† that Iago is telling him and becomes so overwhelmed by this jealousy that he goes back to his natural instincts, resolving issues through murder. This is a result of him joining the army at 7 and since then all he has known is war. The play ends with Othello acting on impulse and under the influence of his violent superego, murdering Desdemona, and then Iago after he realises Desdemona was innocent. He then proceeds to commit suicide as he believed this act would be considered noble, restore his reputation, and relieve his conscious mind of his violent actions. Othello is a mentally and emotionally frail character in the play. He joined the army at a young age and gradually became recognised in society as something other than a then a â€Å"middle aged†, â€Å"black moor†, due to his high rank in the army and then marrying Desdemona. However  when a supposedly â€Å"honest Iago† starts suggesting Othello’s wife is unfaithful, he is easily able to mentally control Othello through him never having resolved his oedipal complex. Othello had never resolved his oedipal complex because we see him give his mother’s handkerchief to Desdemona. Freud describes this as a method of transference and Othello is transferring his repressed love for his mother on to Desdemona. Iago then acting as Othello’s id then reveals Othello’s murderous superego which was caused by decades of warfare. We visually see this in the play when he says â€Å"How shall I murder him Iago† when Iago implies Cassio is sleeping with Desdemona. Here, Othello is also showing that his oedipal complex is still not resolved by transferring his repressed emotions on to new objects through his desire to murder Cassio (being the father) in order to be closer to Desdemona (being the mother). Later in the play we see hi s superego again when Desdemona (the woman he loves) becomes his enemy and he kills her. This act of murder was purely out of jealousy and the fear of him losing his reputation he has worked so hard for. â€Å"Yet she must die, else she’ll betray more men,† Shows us how Othello is subconsciously protecting his soldiers. Though a Freudian perspective it appears that Shakespeare has used Othello as a character to show us that if you are brought up with murder or warfare when you are young, you might never be able to overcome your violent superego as you get older and the detrimental effects this has. Shakespeare has also shown us how sublimation is applied through Othello, as he is someone that has the urge to hurt and kill and thus joined the army, so that the act of killing is morally justified by â€Å"protecting their country or soldiers†. He may not kill the person he wants to kill necessarily, but they will release their feelings by killing the enemy, if unless these feelings are manipulated by an external factor (Iago). Although many years have passed since â€Å"Othello† was written, people can still relate to it because human nature does not change. We all question those who are close to us, and whether or not they are honest and loyal. Shakespeare is using Othello to warn us of disastrous consequences that may arise when you are manipulated by a person (Iago) that capitalises on the jealous nature of another human. Iago is an extremely jealous character in the play. He is envious of Othello’s reputation, higher rank in the army, wife, and that he is more respected in a white society than him; even though he is middle aged and  black. This shown through the quote; â€Å"But for my sport and profit. I hate the Moor†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"He has done my office†. Reputation means to a lot to Iago, and overall that’s all he cares about most, which shows narcissism and racism in his character. He believed that Othello robbed him of his reputation. We see this through the quote; â€Å"But he that filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which not enriches him, and makes me poor indeed†. Iago doesn’t use his superego to control his id so his urges and desires are unrestrained. This is shown throughout the play in his successful attempt to corrupt Othello’s marriage. Nearly one hundred per cent of the time when Iago is with Othello he is using reverse psychology to act as Othello’s superego and make him more jealous of Cassio; â€Å"O beware, my lord, of Jealousy! It is the green-eyed monster†. This is displaying two perspectives on Iago’s physiological state. Either Iago has zero control over his id, and just lets his jealous mind run wild. Or, he chooses not to control his psychopathic mind with his superego. This results in him tricking Othello into consciously thinking he’s jealous when he unconsciously isn’t. For example, when Othello asks for â€Å"living reason† (proof) that Desdemona’s been â€Å"disloyal,† Iago tells him about an erotic dream that Cassio supposedly had one night while he wa s lying in bed next to Iago. In sleep I heard him say â€Å"Sweet Desdemona, let us be wary, let us hide our loves†. After Iago tells these rumours he then covers his tracks by deceiving Othello. An example of this is when he says; â€Å"Men should be what they seem† which is ironic coming from him, as he is not what he seems. He is deceptive and believable, and for Othello that is bad news for someone who is so easily jealous and mentally frail. â€Å"He hath a person and a smooth dispose, to be suspected, framed to make women false. The Moor is of a free and open nature, that thinks men honest but that seem to be so† This quote is reinforcing how Iago believes Othello will be easy to manipulate and deceive. Through this psychoanalysis we have a greater understanding of Iago’s motivations and unconscious desires. We see how he projected an overwhelming amount of jealousy he had for Othello on to him, and even though he thought he was in control of the situation and that he would come out on top, it led to both of their demise. For Iago jealousy played on the trust he developed in his relationship with Othello and whether Othello would believe him. However even though Othello did believe and trust Iago, Shakespeare still shows us  that jealousy destroys relationships and consumes the mind. My psychoanalysis of â€Å"Othello† has given me a new understanding of the play for a different perspective from what I would normally view it from. Iago and Othello both had major flaws in their characters which ultimately lead to their demise. Iago couldn’t control his id, which meant he was always acting on impulse without control of the superego and there was only a matter of time before he slipped up. Then Othello never resolving his oedipal complex meant someone like Iago could easily manipulate and mentally corrupt him. Both these characters have shown us as readers how we need to be well rounded people so we are not as easily susceptible to jealousy, and the effects this has if we are not.

History of Latin America: The Colonial to Contemporary Period Essay

The history of Latin America can only be understood in its relations with other countries and continents. Europe and Anglo-America play a huge role in shaping the history of Latin America from pre-colonial times to the contemporary period. The expansionist policies of colonizing countries clearly meddled with the history of Latin America. This is seen in the longstanding presence of dominant countries in the continent. The effects of these forces can be seen in the economy, politics, culture and history of Latin America. Interestingly, defining Latin America by presenting its history is a monumental task. For one, Latin America is not a homogenous continent. â€Å"It is an immense world region striving to establish its place in the new global order†¦ it is home to some 500 million people who well represent the rich racial and cultural diversity of the human family† (Vanden and Prevost 1). Rather than present Latin American history in the traditional historical framework—dates, geography, political successions—which is linear in nature, this essay resonates Eduardo Galeano’s depiction of Latin American history. This presentation is based on a number of facets of history that are suitable images of what Latin American peoples had collectively undergone. This essay seeks to present the history of Latin America from the colonial to contemporary period. Given the vast scope of the region’s history, specific thematic spheres are focal discussion points in this essay. The discussion will focus in terms of: slavery, foreign domination, agriculture structure, foreign debt, living standards and neo-liberalism. Lastly, the conclusion presents a synthesized view of Latin America’s history. Slavery One phenomenon collectively experienced by Latin America is slavery. The main reason for the interest of colonizers in Latin America is economic in nature. Slavery is a means of production whereby the mass production of goods from the colonizing countries would have free labor. Intensifying the capital would translate to a corresponding increase of productivity for the colonizer. Slavery took place almost immediately after the invasion of Latin American countries. It is tied to the new law and order promulgated by the ones in the bastion of power. Modem day transatlantic slave trade dated from 1519 to 1867; by 1530 the Spanish crown had authorized the spread of slavery to Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica† (Vanden and Prevost 33). The colonizers of Europe and the US had the â€Å"realization that new laborers, artisans, and those with other skills could add to the growing nations† (8). This means that slavery crept through the entire continent, every colonizer followed suit—fearing of lagging behind the economies of colonizers that are founded on slave labor—since then others have already adopted the practice of slavery. In the movie Burn, the island of Queimada is ravaged with unscrupulous practices of production. Slaves were used in the sugar plantations and manufacturing plants so that the profits are maximized (Burn 1969). Although, there are different forms of slavery within Latin America and in some countries, slavery as a tool for economic production even failed. The case of Brazil and the Carribean showed that resistance to slavery can be successful. â€Å"In northern Brazil and the Caribbean, native slavery failed, and the native peoples would not otherwise provide the abundant labor needed† (Vanden and Prevost 32). Foreign Domination Pre-colonial Latin America is isolated in nature: the economies there were â€Å"small local spheres that are isolated from events outside the valley, village or small town. † (146) Civilizations such as the Mayan, Mohican, etc. contributed to the breakdown of isolationism, although the collapse is only in economic terms and is limited only to the region. Less centralized societies existed before the foreign presence in the region and had been self-sustaining for centuries. â€Å"Latin American integration into the world economy only began when the Europeans arrived† (146). During the period of foreign domination, the breakdown of autonomy of the different facets of society became a massive and all-encompassing policy. Politics, culture, economics, social order, law and governance are all key positions held by foreign powers. The relationship between the empire and colonies is similar to the relationship of the slaves to their masters. Core-periphery relationship enabled the rich empires to continually develop at the expense of the peripheries. The decisions on resources, politics and over-all direction of the Latin America are done on foreign soil. Galeano points out that the expansionist policy of foreign colonizers had a push and a pull factor. The push factor is the desire of colonizers for glory. The first of the conquerors that came to Latin America are the Europeans notably the Spanish. Initially, the desire for glory drove explorers to different expeditions of other lands. The pull factor is the allure of the expeditionary forces to the vast riches of the region. â€Å"After the reports of the riches of the empire to the south had reached the Spanish settlement in Panama, considerable interest in conquest developed. Eventually, the Spanish came back with its conquistadores† (Galeano 27). The rest, as we now know from hindsight, is history. Agriculture Production Agricultural production in the Latin America became the fuel for development of the imperial global market. â€Å"At the same time, directly or indirectly but decisively, it spurred the growth of Dutch, French, English and United States industry. The demand for sugar produced the plantation, an enterprise motivated by†¦ profit and placed at the service of the international market that Europe is organizing. (Galeano 72). Agriculture production policies of the imperial powers deliberately shifted from small-scale farming into monocrop economies. â€Å"As national economies developed, regions and often whole nations became dedicated to monoculture—dedication to one crop or commodity. † (Vanden and Prevost 151). Colombia and El Salvador focused on selling coffee on the international market, Mexico and Venezuela were dependent on the petroleum commodity, Bolivia centered on tin. Coffee and bananas became the biggest agricultural products of Central America. From being self-sufficient agricultures, where people â€Å"nourished themselves on a balanced diet consisting of beans, corn, and squash,† (Vanden and Prevost 19), the shift into agro-industries is triggered by the principle of comparative advantage on the international market. Latin America at this point became a good source of raw materials and food for the imperialist states. The priority of agriculture in peripheries is always the self-serving interest of the US and Europe. While Brazil prospered due to its exports of sugarcane monoculture, the nation’s children ironically starved. Abundance and prosperity came hand in hand with chronic malnutrition and misery for most of the population† (Galeano 75). Foreign Debt At present Jamaica owes over $4. 5 billion to the IMF, the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) among other international lending agencies yet the significant development that these loans have guaranteed have yet to manifest. The amounts of foreign exchange together with the structural adjustment policies have had a negative impact in the life of everybody. In another part of the movie, we can see the history of a chicken plant which had a good business selling high-quality chicken to the internal Jamaica market; but this business has been demoralize by U. S. ; while there are a lot of restriction on foods and goods imported into the U. S. there are regularly no restrictions on foods and goods exported to foreign developing country. (Life and Debt 2001). Jamaica is not alone in its debt crisis. After the shift from colonialism to the independence of Latin America, the new world order shifted its principles from liberalism to a neo-liberal, neo-colonial system. Virtually all of Latin America is on the throes of economic dependence on international financial institutions, namely the IMF and World Bank. The loans do not come without strings attached to it. Structural adjustment programs and stringent conditionalities essentially limit the capability of Latin America to compete at the global market. For instance, produce from Third World countries such as that in Latin America are penalized with tariffs and quotas as they enter First World markets, while finished products of the US and Europe find their ‘niche’ market in the Third World. The free play of supply and demand does not exist on the international market, the reality is a dictatorship of one group over the other† (Galeano 259). Conclusion: Global Economic Hegemony The alienation of the peoples of Latin America, their sufferings and collective aspirations juxtaposed with the injustices experienced within its history are the prime reasons for the regions revolutionary and bloody history. From slavery, to feudalism, to mercantilism, to capitalism, the world order had changed via neo-liberalism, neo-colonialism and globalization. Sadly, none of these modes of production had effectively benefitted Latin America. These different economic historical periods are only different forms of the same thing—inequalities, poverty, human rights abuses and a melange of problems that hound Latin America today. Since the colonial period, the grips of powerful nation states had never loosened on Latin America. It is a good source of raw materials, with cheap labor and also a good market for finished products. The international economic structures enabled â€Å"economic policy recommendations that are dominated by orthodox capitalist economic thinking† (Vanden and Prevost 165). Inequalities continue to exist and are even presented in smokescreens such as Free Trade, which is not free after all. The Global North competing in the international market against the Global South is a very one-sided economic structure that benefits the North at the expense of the South. The contemporary global economic hegemony is essential for the US and Europe, it is essential for their survival. Globalization shrank the world into a smaller entity but the international economy is still run by colonial powers. 21st century domination of the world does not come in barbaric way, the methods of coercion and domination are subtle yet they are as cruel and deadly as before. What had happened for the past centuries is an enslavement of Latin America and a raping of humanity by colonizers.

Cigarettes Essays - Electronic Cigarettes, Smoking, Habits, Tobacco

Cigarettes Essays - Electronic Cigarettes, Smoking, Habits, Tobacco Cigarettes 1-3-1 ESSAY Did you know three cigarettes could get one addicted? Every time one takes a puff of a cigarette they?re playing a dangerous game with life. I always wondered, Why are cigarettes so deadly, what is in cigarettes, if people know they?re deadly then why do they still smoke them, and finally why does the government allow people to buy these when they can kill you? Every time one smokes a cigarette it?s like putting a gun to your head and pulling the trigger with out knowing if the gun is loaded or not. I?ll do what?s within my ability to answer these questions in this essay. I browsed the internet (isn?t it a wonderful tool?) and used other references and my knowledge to determine why cigarettes are addictive, unhealthy, and unappealing. If we could vote to make cigarettes illegal then I?d vote yes. If your vote is no then after you read this essay I hope you will vote yes and save millions of adult and CHILDREN lives. Cigarettes are very unappealing. Do you like the smell of an old used ashtray? I don?t and most other people don?t either. Well how would you like for smoking area to smell like that and wouldn?t be able to do anything about it. You know how some smokers? teeth are yellow. This is one result of the tar staining their teeth. All white items in your smoking area could turn yellow as a result in the tar you exhale along with many other chemicals. Premature wrinkles are another result in smoking. Cigarettes are very unhealthy. If you knew what is in cigarettes you would think twice about even touching them. The basic substances are nicotine, tobacco, and TAR. Yes TAR that black smelly stuff that you have on your roof, in the streets, and if you smoke in your lungs. These are some other substances used to make cigarettes: Uranium, water, Carbon Dioxide. These chemicals are also used to make nuclear bombs. I guess smokers enjoy smoking nuclear bombs. Some side effects of smoking are many forms of cancer, thickening of the blood, making the arteries thinner and smaller, cancer of the vocal cords You?ll have to talk out of a microphone in you?re neck, and could cause constant Bronchitis. Addiction is probably the worst part. Before I explain what addiction is like I?m going to tell you about the process of addiction. 1. You light the cigarette. 2. You smoke two or three. 3. That dizziness is the nicotine traveling throughout your body. 4. The nicotine takes effect and you want another and another and so on. 5. You?re addicted. Now for what it?s like. Every time you get angry or sad you want a cigarette. If you?ve had a stressful day you may want one after a day?s work to calm your nerves. If you have no way of getting them you?ll steal them or get other people to steal them for you. You may also get others to buy cigarettes for you, or buy them from other people and get ripped off. For those of you who voted no earlier and changed to yes, good for you. For those of you who voted no and kept your vote remember smoking is unhealthy, unappealing, and very addictive. I hope I answered many of your questions. Thank you for taking time to read my essay. I hope you will agree with me that cigarettes should be illegal.

SAT Writing - PrepScholar 2016 Students Encyclopedia

SAT Writing - PrepScholar 2016 Students' Encyclopedia SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The Writing section of the SAT consists of multiple choice questions and a 25 minute essay. The Writing section was added to the SAT in 2005, changing the maximum composite score from 1600 to 2400. It was based on, though not directly comparable to, the old SAT Subject Test in Writing. Note: this article is a series in the PrepScholar2016 Students' Encyclopedia, a free students' and parents' SAT / ACT guide that provides encyclopedic knowledge. Read all the articles here! To prepare for the Writing section, students benefit fromfocusing ontwo main areas: their understanding of grammar rules and their ability to present and support their point of view in a 5-paragraph essay. In terms of grammar, students mustidentify specific rules, like subject-verb agreement and dangling modifiers, and fix sentences that containerrors. Students willalsobe called upon toexhibit correct grammar and varied sentence structure in their essays, as well as to provide thoughtful examples to supporta thesis. The Writing section, like the Mathematics and Critical Reading sections, is scored on a scale of 200 to 800. The essay contributes about 30% to the total Writing score, while the multiple choice counts for approximately 70%. In addition to their scaled Writing score, students receive a separate subscore for the essay between 2 and 12. Two readers grade the essay on a scale from 1 to 6. These scores are then added together. If there is significant disagreement on an essay grade, then a third reader is called in to give his/her opinion. The average reader spends less than 3 minutes gradingeach essay, so structure and clarity are key to communicating a point of view and giving a strong impression to readers. An essay score of 0 is possible if the space is left blank or if the essay is illegible, completely off topic, or written witha prohibited instrument (ie, not a Number 2 pencil). Highly scoring SAT essays typically demonstrate a 5-paragraph structure, with an introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion. The 25 minute essay is always the first section on the SAT. The essay section begins with a short blurb or quote, followed by a question asking for the student's point of view. The following essay prompt was given on the June 2015 administration of the SAT. Sample SAT Essay Prompt While the prompts differ, every essay assignment asks students to develop their point of view and to support it with reasoning and examples from various sources. As in the above example, the prompts are broad and often philosophical or related to a social issue. According to College Board, the essay is graded on several components. The first is the development of a point of view with strong supporting evidence. Graders look for organization, focus, and a logical and smooth flow of ideas. The essay is also graded on the skillful use of language, varied vocabulary and sentence structure, grammar, usage, and mechanics. An essay with a score of 12 will excel in all of these areas, while those that receive lower scores may have weaker development and organization, along with errors in grammar and usage. Despite College Board's claims to the contrary, several SAT critics and tutors have stated that longer essays often automatically garner higher scores. Many of these criticsalso recommend the insertion ofhigh level vocabulary words, like "provincial," "myriad," and "plethora" into essays to increase scores into the 10+ points range. Lee Perelman, former director of writing at MIT, assertedthat longer essays almost always score higher. He also suggested that students "pick a side," rather than argue a moderate opinion, follow a predictable 5 paragraph structure, and not concern themselves with accuracy in order to gain a strong essay score. In 2010, then 14 year old Milo Beckman examined115 SAT essays and concluded that longer essays almost always achieve the strongest scores. In addition to the essay, the Writing section consists of 49 multiple choice questions, divided into one 25 minute section and one 10 minute section for a total of 55 minutes.Both of these are entirely multiple choice, and the 10 minute section always comes at the end of the test. Students may encounter an additional 25 minute Writing section when they take the SAT. If this is the case, then one of the 25 minute sections is the experimental, or variable, section and will remain unscored. Since there is no way of knowing exactly which section is experimental, students benefit from assumingall SAT sections count toward their scores. These questions take three forms: identifying sentence errors, sentence improvement, and paragraph improvement.Writing questions mainly draw on a student's understanding of grammar, sentence structure, and organization within a paragraph or passage. There are 18 identifying sentence error questions on SAT Writing. All of thesesentences are independent of one another. They will have four words or phrases within them underlined, comprising answer choices A, B, C, and D. Answer choice E will read, "No error." Students choose the answer choice that corresponds to an error in grammar, usage, or mechanics or selects "E" if the sentence is correct as is. Sample SAT Question The 25 improving sentences questions test similar skills of grammar and usage, but they take a different form.In each of these questions, answer choices B, C, D, and E present an altered version of an underlined portion of the sentence. Answer choice Amaintains the underlined portion as it is and is the correct answer choice if the sentence containsno error. Sample SAT Question The 6 improving paragraph questions have a similar format, but they refer to underlined portions of an entire paragraph or short passage. In addition to errors within sentences, improving paragraph questions may ask about the placement or order of sentences, along with the organization and sequence of ideas. According to College Board, the Writing multiple choice questionsrequire students to demonstrate the following skills: To communicate ideas clearly and effectively To improve a piece of writing through revision and editing To recognize and identify sentence-level errors To understand grammatical elements and structures and how they relate to each other in a sentence To recognize correctly formed grammaticalstructures To clearly express ideas through sentence-combining and use of transitional words and phrases To improve coherence of ideas within and among paragraphs Most of these skills overlap with the stated expectations for the essay. Students also benefit from having the ability to recognize and revise rules of English grammar. The following include what SAT experts agree are themost commonly tested grammar rules on the SAT Writing: Subject-verb agreement Subject-pronoun agreement Parallel sentence structure Subject/object Proper verb tense Comparative/superlative Number agreement Dangling modifiers Idioms While the Writing section has been a part of the SAT for almost ten years, some colleges do not consider it with the sameweight as they do the Mathematics and Critical Reading sections. Students may research the standardized testing scores of their institutions of interest in order to learn whether it is a significant, or even required, factor in their college applications. Redesign Alert The new SAT starting in Marchof 2016 relocates the essay to the end of the test and makes it optional. The essay will be 50 minutes and will ask students to analyze a given passage. Furthermore, the new SAT will no longer have single sentence questions, instead testing skills of grammar, usage, and mechanics within the context of longer passages. Finally, the new SAT will return to a scoring system out of 1600, combining Critical Reading and Writing scores together on a scale from200 to 800. Read more from the SAT Encyclopedia! Further Reading The 12 Hardest SAT Writing Questions Ever How to Write an SAT Essay, Step by Step 6 SAT Essay Examples to Answer Every Prompt

Business Law Questions Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Law Questions - Coursework Example The first advantage is that this type of business is easy to form. The business organization is simple with minimal legal formalities that includes the license and permits in special cases. The business is also easy to dissolve if Eva so wishes. The second advantage is that this type of business only needs small startup capital. Apart from this, the amount of money needed for management is small as there is usually no need for specialist in the various functional areas of the company. The third advantage Eva gains from this type of business organization is that it affords a great deal of flexibility in that decision making and changes are easy and fast. The fourth and probably the biggest advantage is that the owner receives all the profits from the business. The final advantage offered is that the company if moderately free from government control. The government regulates this type of business less than other types, thus Eva’s day-to-day operations are smooth as long as she follows the letter of her permit and license. While the business offers many advantages, it also has some challenges. First, these types of companies usually have limited resources. Due to this, banks and other credit facilities are usually reluctant to grant loans due to the high mortality rate of these companies as well few assets owned. The second disadvantage is that the owner assumes unlimited liability. This means that all the debts and loses fall on the head of the owner. The third disadvantage is that in the event the company fails, creditors have the right to force the owner to sell their own property as well as those belonging to the company to offset the debt. Finally, if the owner dies or is incapacitated, the business dies or is incapacitated. In order to raise capital, Eva faces some difficulties as investors unrelated to her will not be comfortable regarding the security and use of their investment. Capital investment for sole proprietorship is also difficult to secure and formalize without risking losing control of the company. The first course of action she may take is to seek financial aid from people related to her such a family and friends. She can also raise loans from financial and banking institutions. In this case, she can secure a loan from the bank for her working capital and seek help from specialized financial institutions in case of long term investment such as buying fixed assets. The third approach is discussing with her suppliers to receive goods on credit, i.e. acquire trade credit. Finally, she can lease her equipment to other firms in order to acquire medium term funds. Question 2 By looking at the second scenario, we find that Don has a basis to set aside the contract. This is because the contract between Don and Evan was entered under coercion. According to Bigwood (369), pure coercion occurs when one party plans to engage in a legal wrong to endorse his demands leaving another party to without any reasonable alternative but to comply. While Evans threat is not a legal wrong it is however exploitative, disagreeable and wrongful in the broader sense hence an improper proposal. Under contract law, Don can prove that he was under duress (duress to the person) thus enabling the contract to be rescinded since it will then be voidable (Stone 337). In order to prove that the contract was under coercion, Don has to prove that no other reasonable option remained but to sign the contract. This can be done by reviewing the relationship between him and his nephew as well as contracts they had entered before. Apart from voiding the contract, Ron can also choose to enforce the contract (Bigwood 370). Cases of

Prison life and strategies to decrease recidivism Essay

Prison life and strategies to decrease recidivism - Essay Example With these facts in mind, this research seeks, among other things, to further look into the daily happenings at a typical American prison. And more importantly, it also seeks to address the need to prevent recidivism and to reintegrate offenders into society. In his book â€Å"Crime and Punishment in America† (1998), Elliott Currie tells us that the American approach to violent crime is out of balance and just plain wrong. Despite America’s heavy reliance on jails and prisons as deterrents to crime, at that point in time, it still held the worst level for violence among the developed countries. The idea of America being soft on crime, he says, is a myth. Whatever some may argue, the fact is that crime’s response to punishment is unpredictable. He goes on to quote John DiIulio, who explains that the money spent to put a criminal behind bars prevents two or three more from committing crime. Also, according to James Wilson, despite the expense involved in maintaining prisons, the benefits, in terms of crimes avoided, far outweigh the cost. The problem is that, even after 25 years as of his writing (and in fact, even to this very day), the vast amount of cash spent on prisons has done little to make violent crime respond consistently. And despite this, the American public still insists on the effectiveness of the penitentiary system. As an example, Currie cites the female inmates sentenced on the most minor of offenses, such as drug charges or property crimes connected to such dependencies – and how their imprisonment has left multitudes of children parentless. In this case the system fails to account for the greater costs involved: substitute care, welfare dependency, and even possible delinquency and/or drug addiction. Another more direct example is how the lack of serious vocational training in most prisons leads inmates to leave it even more ill-prepared for the

Term paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Term Paper Example A firm would boost that it has succeeded in business if it has met its objectives. When the firm is designing its objectives, it has to consider factors that would influence the market entry approach of the firm, pricing and distribution. Many automotive motive organizations face stiff competition in the market. This would call for a marketing strategy that aim which would aid the firm to meet its set objectives. Information regarding products of the firm in the market is very important since it enables the business to identify areas, which need correction when designing marketing approach. Marketing survey is an important exercise to the firm since it will dictate the approach or entry behavior of the business in a particular segment. Marketing strategy is a tool that the automotive firm would use to make a calculative approach into the market. The strategy would influence issues such as pricing, distribution, and market share among others. Marketing of products require a strategic entry behavior into the market in order to meet the set target of the organization. Most automotive companies manufacture similar products and supply their products into the same markets. Competition among these companies requires a devised mechanism that would woo buyers to purchase specific products of a particular company. Branding of the company products and employing marketing tactics would help to woo buyers into buying the company products. Automotive firm needs to consider a number of factors before rolling its products into the marketing. These factors would influence the amount of sale the firm is able to make, the growth of the automotive firm and market share of the firm. This paper explores strategic marketing strategies for automotive company. Market survey helps in establishing taste and preferences of customers. Conducting a marketing research would help an automotive firm to develop products that would suit the interest of the consumers. The firm may

Theories for the Development of Agriculture

Theories for the Development of Agriculture Question #2: Agriculture was one of the greatest advancements in human history as it provided a foundation for the development of social hierarchies or rank societies, population growth, greater access to resources through trade, and power struggles among the elites. The big question, however, is how did the practice of agriculture originate? Hunting and gathering societies had been very successful up until the time marking the transition to agricultural and sedentary practices. Therefore, why did early modern humans decide to change from an already successful lifestyle? This is a curious matter because the beginnings of agriculture were surprisingly not that effective or successful in generating great outputs of resources as once commonly believed. Agriculture, though it was a successful development in sedentism and increased population growth, brought malnourishment to early Natufian farmers of the lack of variety in its first generations of use. Therefore, the question still remains, why did h unter and gatherers transfer to agriculture and how did the process of agriculture get initiated? There are multiple models proposing the development of agriculture which can be differentiated in a biological and environmental emphasis as well as in a cultural and sociological track. Through the research of Gordon Childe, Braidwood, Binford, Cohen, and Hayden, an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses can be made in the differentiating theories of the development of agriculture. One proposed theory for the development of agriculture was climate change. There have been several large climatic transitions between the interglacial periods. Bar Yosef researched the paleoenvironmental conditions of the Levant and suggests that about 14,000BP (before present) there were more fluctuations in precipitation than changes in temperature, ultimately responsible for the expansion of the vegetational belts. This allowed for vast latitudinal migrations, good foraging patterns, increase in population growth, and an abundance of food resources. However, between 13,000 and 12,800BP known as the Younger Dryas, conditions became colder and drier, decreasing the annual precipitations and a change in the distribution of rainfall locations (29 Oct 2009). This placed much stress on the plants and animals. According to Bar Yosef, the dry climate expanded desert conditions and caused reductions in C3 plants, used for cereal, but also the reduction of megafauna which were unable to ada pt to the new environment (Bar Yosef 1998: 174). This in turn created doubts about the current nomadic organization of the foraging groups. The hunting and gathering bands soon migrated towards the Mediterranean regions to join other foraging groups to live within a close proximity and seek refuge in the small fertile areas. Childe an advocate for climate change as the effect for the development of agriculture states in his Oasis Hypothesis that because of the transition to dry and cold conditions, humans and animals migrated toward the river valleys for necessary water consumption. Bar Yosef states that along with territorial restrictions, [there was] an increased motivation for intentional cultivation (Last Hunters 70). This not only increased population size but could have also instigated sedentary life. The ideal environment that would foster the origins of agriculture would be in an area with an abundance of resources. Previously it was considered that agriculture arose in marginal environments areas where severe climatic change forced human populations to find new foods to eat (Price and Gebauer 7); it is on the contrary however, that populations unable to sustain themselves would not take the risk of testing out new methods for the accumulation of food. Agriculture requires more energy expenditur e and work from all inhabitants than foraging, therefore as a struggling population, this method would not have been the best option. Childes argument takes into account the climatic and environmental pressures but it does not provide any cultural factors that might have also influenced the development of agriculture. Braidwood challenges Childes hypothesis and suggests a more culturally driven theory for the agricultural origins. Contrary to Childes Oasis Theory in which desiccation marginalized suitable foraging territories and caused large groups to settle in close proximities in lowland oases, Braidwood suggests through his Nuclear Zone Theory and through his research in the Zagros-Taurus mountain ranges, that agriculture in fact began in the well-watered regions known as the hilly flanks of the Fertile Crescent (Watson 25). Braidwood accepts the notion that climatic change has some sort of an effect on the origins of agriculture; however, he suggests that it only plays a minor role, contrary to the ideas of Childe. Braidwood instead proposes that the development of agriculture is dependent on the presence of cultural mechanisms (Redman 1978: 96) because along with the presence of agriculture, social and political systems of the early Natufian people were created as well. Braidwood states that agriculture was the natural outcome from social and cultural complexities. He questioned that if cultural change i s reliant on climate change stated by Childe, then why did agriculture not start before the large changes occurred during the interglacial periods, such as 125 million years ago (3 Nov 2009)? Using a cultural approach, Braidwood suggests that agriculture was not possible 125 million years ago because the human cognition was not fully developed and complex enough to suggest any such type of food accumulation methods (10 Nov 2009). Agriculture requires a lot of coordination and management controlled by the elites, therefore, it could be hypothesized that with the presence of social hierarchies, sedentism was also in establishment. The favorable environment of the hilly flanks as well as the presence of the ancestral or wild strains of the now domesticated plants offered foragers the option to settle down. With the act of settling down in the optimal zones, as well as the accumulation of knowledge about the physical environment, Braidwood suggests that over time, foragers would eventua lly realize the potential inherent in the local flora and fauna and would exploit that potential by domesticating appropriate species (Watson 25). This also suggests the requirement of greater cognition and larger brain size of the modern human; and therefore Braidwood argues agriculture appears only when the human culture was mature (3 Nov 2009). Braidwoods hilly flanks theory is successful because it attributes to developments of sedentism and food storage. Braidwood criticizes Childes dependence on climatic change as being the main reason for the origins of agriculture because he holds a cultural perspective in regards to its development. Braidwood states that if cultural change, the transition to agriculture, depended solely on noncultural factors, the climate, then there should be evidence of cultural change before the last Ice Age that separates the end of the Pleistocene and the Holocene (3 Nov 2009). Against Kleins Big Bang Theory regarding human cognition, agriculture simply did not happen before the Holocene because humans were not ready or complex enough to have the capability of creating the idea of agriculture (10 Nov 2009). Braidwood and Childe both suggest that agriculture occurred in small optimal zones, however, through Braidwoods research in the mountainous regions of Iraq, he concludes that there was no significant climate change because the areas were still relatively fertile and therefore there was a large concentrati on of animals and plants that could be exploited. According to the Willy Sutton principle, where there are ample resources, then people will settle there and take advantage of those resources (3 Nov 2009). A weakness in Braidwoods theory however is that he does not try to answer the question: why did agriculture occur at the time that it did? It is suggested that agriculture developed independently throughout the world at relatively the same time. Braidwood does not question why this happened but only concentrates on how it happened. Braidwood provides good reasons as to why he criticizes Childes hypothesis, however, his weakness is that he does not provide a strong alternative theory. In his book, Prehistoric Man, he states, the groups became agricultural villagers because they were ready for it (MacNeish 9) which demonstrates his theory that man only developed agriculture when the culture and cognition were more complex. This however is not an effective alternative hypothesis beca use it needs evidence to support the claim. The only evidence available is the size of the human brain, which does not deduce much information because archaeologists cannot question the cognitive capabilities of the deceased. Artifacts are available to suggest development in ideas and concepts, but this is also highly subjective. An alternative hypothesis to the development of agriculture is directly correlated with population growth. Both Mark Cohen and Lewis Binford attribute that with the pressures on food availability caused by population growth, agriculture was an innovative development which helped sustain growing societies. Louis Binfords model for agriculture weaves pieces of both Childes and Braidwoods hypotheses. Binford suggests that hunting-gathering groups maintained equilibrium between their population size and availability of resources in order to remain under the environments carrying capacity (Watson 26). This idea explains why foraging groups were successful; they kept a control on the food intake for each person. During the Younger Dryas, as climate became colder and drier, groups moved to the coastal regions where they became sedentary, as Childe had concluded. The difference however is that Binford focuses on population size as the stressor and instigator for agriculture. Groups congregat ed into the optimal zones, putting pressure on the available resources as well as creating an imbalance on the carrying capacity. This caused some groups to move out of the optimal zones and settle along the peripheries that had drought-resistant plants and smaller-sized animals (5 Nov 2009). With the increased pressure of supporting population sizes and the need to remain under the areas carrying capacity, groups intensif[ied] their subsistence practices in the direction of domesticating plants and animals (Watson 26). The necessity for subsistence strategies in addition significantly impacted societys social and economic factors, demonstrated through Brian Haydens social competition theory. This theory establishes that sedentism preceded agriculture. In order for the sedentary lifestyle to persist and work efficiently, rank societies were established. In response to social hierarchies, there is an inherent need to accumulate power and prestige. Power is equated to food, and in order for elites to maintain their prestige and power they need to be maintain large quantities of food. To exponentially increase their possession of food, the development of agriculture comes into effect. Hayden proposes that the development of agriculture is a result of stress from social competition and the change in the social environment (10 Nov 2009). This change in societal structure is not the result of agriculture but it is more so the cause of agriculture (10 Nov 2009). Hayden also states that agriculture can only occur in locations where there is already an abundance of food and where it can be reproduced (Zeder 2006: 111). The reason for this is that large societies would not put thei r inhabitants at risk attempting a new method of food accumulation if environmental conditions were unsuitable. The development of agriculture, if conditions were successful, was able to produce surpluses which increased rank of elites and created storage for food. Agriculture also increased long distance trade and cross cultural relationships. With the presence of surpluses, societies could afford to give something away (5 Nov 2009). A flaw in Haydens model is that he also fails to address Braidwoods question concerning the reason for why agriculture only occurs in the Holocene and not earlier. In order to understand the models described above with the origins of agriculture it important to account for the archaeological data. Some important ways to extract data is through pollen samples found in water bogs, radiocarbon dating, DNA extraction, etc. For example, in regards to Braidwoods hypothesis that climate change was not as important as Childe and Binford believed, reconstruction of plant communities enable archaeologists to reconstruct Paleolithic climates (29 Oct 2009). In order to reconstruct plant communities, pollen samples are used. Pollen samples can be preserved in waterlogged sediments because the mud at the bottom of the lakes have aerobic conditions, which means that there is no oxygen, allowing pollen and other artifacts to be nicely preserved (29 Oct 2009). Another method to reconstruct climatic conditions and determine when the Younger Dryas occurred is by evaluating methane gas presence in the ice cores found in Greenland (3 Nov 2009). This along with plan t communities can help reconstruct past climates. Lithic assemblages used by the first farmers, the Natufians, are also good indicators of when agriculture originated. Tools such as picks and sickle blades were used for harvesting cereals; this can be inferred by observing the microwear on the blades, but also through plant macrofossils which might contain residue from the particular grass being cut (Bar-Yosef 1998: 164). Agriculture can also be demonstrated by the structures of the central plant stems. In domesticated plants the seeds do not break off as easily as the wild grains do, which is evidence of human manipulation on plants to maximize output but a correlation of harvests with seasonality (29 Oct 2009). Another source of evidence for the origins of agriculture is looking at samples of preserved human coprolites in settled communities which helps detect what type of diet the human had. If there is a lack of nutrition, then it can be inferred that the society was just beginn ing the innovation of agriculture as there was a lack of nutrition and variety in early agricultural diets. Not just coprolites but also bone composition, tooth enamel, and support for the presence of pandemic diseases provide good archaeological support for the origins of agriculture (Zeder 2006: 110). Its observed that carbon and nitrogen isotopes found within the bone and microwear on teeth detect the nutrition of humans. Other archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture, described by Zeder (2006: 110) is the presence of fences and corral to enclose the communitys animals; this reason fits nicely with the social theory and necessity for agriculture because it demonstrates the complete transition to sedentary life and the domestication of plants and animals. There are multiple theories that be equated to the development of agriculture and they all tend to build off of each other. Yes, each archaeologist or theorist emphasizes slightly different nuances, however they interrelate archaeological, environmental, and societal information in each of their models. According to Watson, Braidwoods account improves on Childes, and Binfords upon Braidwoods (27). I propose that the stress theories of Childe, Cohen, and Binford can co-occur with the cultural change theories of Braidwood and Hayden. Agriculture could have been a great phenomenon that occurred by accident, but human cognition had to have had enough knowledge for the manipulation of grasses and animals to exploit and produce large surpluses. In order to keep order within the society with the presence of agriculture there also has to have been control and power structures. Climatic changes play a huge role in regards to where societies choose to settle and in the strength of seasonal foo d production. In recognizing the biological and cultural aspects of agriculture, it can be deduced that these models are very much interrelated with specific links that may cause one theorists model to lean heavily to one side or another. There is not one universal applicable theory for the origin of agriculture because all of the worlds systems are interdependent on one another. Question #3: States are regionally organized societies with large populations that are economically and ethnically diverse. This suggests that the formation of a state occurs when there are social hierarchies with a small elite group that accentuates its sovereignty and dominance over the rest of the population. According to Algazes lecture, societies must have political administration, economic administration or redistribution, and religious indoctrination or infrastructure in order to be labeled as a state (17 Nov 2009). It has commonly been noted that states or cities are only considered as such with the dependence of a large population size, 100,000 people or more. R. Fox in his book Urban Anthropology, however, discusses that determining a state or a city on raw size or scale is not completely irrelevant but it is also not an important key component (17 Nov 2009). It is more important to evaluate a city or state on its function and sustainability. The central question therefore is: what comp onents are important in the formation of a state? In Jonathan Haas book, The Evolution of the Prehistoric State, he divides numerous theories of the origins and formations of states into two categories: the conflict position and the integration position. These two positions try to argue how states formed and regulated and maintained control over the complex societies. Through the theories of Engels and Fried regarding the conflict position, Haas argues that states formed and resolved economic and social stratifications effectively over their own populations and neighboring peoples through coercion. Opposed to the conflict position, Haas derives the integration position argument from Service, in which state governments were able to regulate and maintain social order over its inhabitants without the use of forceful tactics. Haas ultimately does not support either position: for conflict or for integration, however, if it was necessary, the conflict theory would seem more plausible as i t contains more valid reasons and logical thought.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the basic components that influenced Engels and Fried to cooperate with the conflict model were the increases in agricultural production, development of trade relationships, and the introduction of irrigation systems for water control. Engels states that the formation of the state begins with origins of agriculture (Haas 1982: 36). With the ability to produce more food and create surpluses for a growing population, societies became more sedentary and divisions of labor were created. The increase in food production created specialized occupations and allowed the elites to assume political administrative roles or have an impact in religious dealings. The role of religious figures is important as it is correlated with the states political administration. Religion has a faà §ade, seen to unite a population, however, it is also influentially political in order to control and regulate public affairs (Haas 1982: 44). The large prominence of religious temples provides strong support for the importance of religious ideology and coercion in a common belief upon the inhabitants within the state (Stein 1994: 42). Childe also argues that with the need to support non-agricultural producing groups within the society, irrigation agriculture not only increased food availability on a large scale but also was an important facet for social control (Haas 1982: 40). The social control derives from elites controlling the power of water supply as well as the necessity of a huge labor source. The conflict model comes into effect due to the presence of differences in economic wealth and divisions of labor. Engels states that as the politically dominant class acquires the new means of holding down and exploiting the oppressed classby levying taxes and enforcing social control [through] force (Haas 1982: 37). Austin also provides knowledge on the conflict position in the governments development of laws. Laws coerce the population to maintain order and submit to the political authorities of the elites; otherwise there are negative reciprocations (Haas 1982: 38). In Frieds model the basis for the conflict theory is the maintenance of social order in regards to possible conflict arousal to the differences in access to resources (Haas 1982: 49). With the increase in agricultural production and limited access to resources, private property became an issue in establishing economic and political status. Fried states that with the sanctity of private property, social order is accomplished through instituted governmental enforcement (49). Fried successfully discusses that with the changes in mate rialistic components such as increased food production, development of irrigation systems, and private property, the influence of political organization was pertinent. With the combination of military organization and laws along with stratification of classes, state formation provides support for elite social groups and the forceful submission of the peasant groups to the elites generating potential conflicts (Haas 1982: 49). Through evidence that supports state formations, economic scales become more and more important to maintain, grow, and flaunt among peripheral societies and therefore it is important to bring populations together in a defensive mode which calls for the construction of outer walls (19 Nov 2009). Fried provides theoretical approaches to his conflict theory based on the forced rule over a states inhabitants, however, Haas states that he fails to recognize the critical importance and utility of the archaeological record (1982: 50) for evidence to support his claim, and instead hypothesizes the emergence of states by looking at historically known societies (1982: 51). Frieds model can be testable, however it would need to be improved with more data and documentation from pre-state formed societies derived from the archaeological record rather than the historically based inferences. Fried bases his theory more on the logical approaches, for example, he supports the idea that within the means of producing more wealth, it is inevitable to have causes of social friction (19 Nov 2009). Some evidence that could relate to the forced control and economic differentiation amongst the inhabitants can be demonstrated through the layout of the city. For example, large structures belonging to the elites were central to the marketplace and the peasants separated farther away from the center. The presence of numerous temples centrally located indicates strong emphasis on religion and conforming to the beliefs described by the elites who most commonly absorbed the priest occupation. In Ubaid Mesopotamia, the architecture and distributions of artifacts demonstrate economic differentiations within households (Stein 1994: 38) such as with burial practices, artwork, and administration clay tablets. Also, the location of the houses and cities along the rivers and near the canal irrigation systems suggests potential trade of the surplus goods amongst neighboring societies with the ability to transport by waterways (Stein 1994: 42). Fried supports the conflict theory in which forceful tactics were used to create efficient states and political rule. On the contrary, advocates for the integration position propose social order was regulated without forceful tactics. Spencer for example argues that the lower classes, subordinate to the elite classes due to the development of social hierarchies within the political structure, accepted their lowly position in society compared to the wealthy elites (Haas 1982: 63) because of the inability to social climb. Haas also discusses that there might not be demonstrations of conflict or raging warfare between the elite and peasant groups because the peasants are politically and economically incapable of waging successful revolution[s] (1982: 79). According to Gumplowicz, the development of private property acted as a factor to maintain social control, an alternative to physical force (Haas 1982: 64). The main argument for the integration position is that after the state formed, classes were able to reunite through religion, residence locations, and language or culture. This suggests that integration might only be possible within the specific social classes and not throughout the all the social structures in the state. In regards to religion as a non-forceful factor in social order is through the argument of Moret and Davy who argues that rulers who view themselves as a god, thought that they derived their power from the will of the people (Haas 1982: 70). This reason is popularized to keep peasant revolts and power struggles within the kings hereditary circles subdued. Service asserts that political power in the formation of states due to the integration position was redistributive and was acquired by strong leadership qualities which were then passed into the hereditary elite classes (Haas 1982: 75). With the increase in population and size, integration is necessary for cooperation and successfulness in the administration of the state. Service also argue s that the first governments were ruled by right of authority and through the application of sacred sanctions (Haas 1982: 76). The purpose of the religious architecture was to provide social cohesion and control. The weakness of Services argument for the integration position is he advocates that the centralized government provides lots of resources and benefits to the people such as irrigation, religious beliefs, and protection, however he does not recognize that to have an effective state, force needs to be used to keep subjects under control to establish a stable and permanent government. The integrative position also proposes that public works were accomplished voluntary without physical force. However, there are no archaeological records of temples being voluntarily constructed. It can be detected from written documents that throughout other histories, public works were forced upon slaves; therefore the integration position seems weak and too optimistic. Evidence of the presence of walls and military troops suggests that protection was a necessity and important to demonstrate political autonomy over the societys own inhabitants and peripheral communities with who trade is accomplished. Haas does a great job in equally discussing the conflict and integration positions. It however seems more plausible that the conflict position influenced the formation of states as it part of human instinct to assert power and control over others in order to better maintain their own social position. Recognition of power and autonomy is essential in creating a stable state, and can only be accomplished by forcing people to cooperate with rules and regulations.